Kiểm định vai trò của sự tương đồng hình ảnh cá nhân và động cơ tình nguyện đối với ý định làm tình nguyện của sinh viên trong các sự kiện và lễ hội du lịch: Trường hợp tại Đà Nẵng, Việt Nam

Nội dung text: Kiểm định vai trò của sự tương đồng hình ảnh cá nhân và động cơ tình nguyện đối với ý định làm tình nguyện của sinh viên trong các sự kiện và lễ hội du lịch: Trường hợp tại Đà Nẵng, Việt Nam

1. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE FOR YOUNG RESEARCHERS IN ECONOMICS & BUSINESS 2019 ICYREB 2019 EXAMINING THE ROLE OF SELF-IMAGE CONGRUENCE AND VOLUNTEER MOTIVATION IN VOLUNTEER INTENTION OF STUDENTS IN TOURISM EVENTS AND FESTIVALS: THE CASE OF DANANG, VIETNAM KIỂM ĐỊNH VAI TRÒ CỦA SỰ TƯƠNG ĐỒNG HÌNH ẢNH CÁ NHÂN VÀ ĐỘNG CƠ TÌNH NGUYỆN ĐỐI VỚI Ý ĐỊNH LÀM TÌNH NGUYỆN CỦA SINH VIÊN TRONG CÁC SỰ KIỆN VÀ LỄ HỘI DU LỊCH: TRƯỜNG HỢP TẠI ĐÀ NẴNG, VIỆT NAM Nguyen Ngoc An Nguyen, Su Ngoc Diep University of Economics, The University of Danang nguyennna@due.udn.vn ABSTRACT Volunteers play an integral role in operating events effectively and successfully. Furthermore, students are becoming more proactive in volunteering and constituting a vast major of volunteer workforce in events. Although there is the growth of studies investigating volunteer intention, little research has been done for this particular source of volunteer labor. The current study measures the influences of self-image congruence and distinct components of volunteer motivation on students’ intention of volunteering in tourism events and festivals. By using Partial Least Square – Structural Equation Modelling, the proposed structural model was examined with a sample of 302 students who are both experienced volunteers and potential volunteers. The results indicated that students’ self-image congruence and volunteer motivation factors including Career experience and leisure, Event concerns had a positive significant impact on their intention of volunteering for future tourism events and festivals. These findings contribute to a better understanding of determinants of youth volunteer behavior and help event managers create effective volunteer recruitment and retention strategies. Several directions for further research are also suggested. Keywords: Human resources, volunteer motivation, volunteer intention, volunteerism, tourism events. TÓM TẮT Tình nguyện viên đóng vai trò quan trọng trong việc vận hành sự kiện một cách hiệu quả. Ngày nay, sinh viên ngày càng năng động hơn trong việc làm tình nguyện, chiếm đông đảo lực lượng tình nguyện viên trong các sự kiện. Mặc dù việc điều tra ý định làm tình nguyện đã được thực hiện ở các nghiên cứu trước đây, rất ít nghiên cứu quan tâm đến nguồn lao động tình nguyện này. Nghiên cứu này đo lường mức độ ảnh hưởng của sự tương đồng hình ảnh và các thành phần của động lực tình nguyện của sinh viên đối với ý định tình nguyện tại các sự kiện du lịch. Bằng cách sử dụng Mô hình Phương trình cấu trúc bình phương tối thiểu riêng phần (PLS-SEM), mô hình nghiên cứu đề xuất đã được kiểm định với 302 sinh viên là các tình nguyện viên có kinh nghiệm hoặc tiềm năng. Kết quả chỉ ra rằng sự tương đồng về hình ảnh cá nhân và các động cơ tình nguyện bao gồm Kinh nghiệm nghề nghiệp và giải trí, Sự quan tâm về sự kiện (Career experience and leisure, Event concerns) có tác động tích cực đến ý định tình nguyện của sinh viên cho các sự kiện và lễ hội du lịch. Những phát hiện này góp phần hiểu rõ hơn về các yếu tố quyết định hành vi tình nguyện của lực lượng tình nguyện viên trẻ, từ đó giúp các nhà quản lý sự kiện tạo ra các chiến lược tuyển dụng và duy trì nguồn nhân lư tình nguyện hiệu quả. Các hướng nghiên cứu trong tương lai cũng được đề xuất. Từ khóa: Quản trị nguồn nhân lực, tình nguyện viên, động cơ tình nguyện, ý định tình nguyện, sự kiện và lễ hội du lịch. 1. Introduction Events require high-quality management not only in terms of their scale, scope and timeline but also in terms of human resource management. Van der Wagen (2007) emphasized that the event business was the most challenging environment for human resource management. Unlike other fields in economy, in events and festivals, the quality of service essentially depends on the quality as well as the quantity of staffs. The event sector is usually viewed as being ‘labor intensive’ (as opposed to capital intensive) 218
2. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE FOR YOUNG RESEARCHERS IN ECONOMICS & BUSINESS 2019 ICYREB 2019 which means relying heavily on human resources rather than operational resources (i.e. computers) in delivering products to customers (Evans, 2015). Salem, Jones, and Morgan (2012) described the event product as a unique mixture of activities which were the tools for gaining the overall event purposes and satisfying customers’ demands. In order to achieve its aims, an event must meet human needs at all levels. Therefore, human resources management, with the purpose of providing an optimal experience for the audience, is a vital part of product planning. In the event environment, there are many different arrangements with a multitude of staffs working traditional jobs as full time or permanent employees. However, it is undeniable that the success of every event is attributed by the devotions of volunteers to certain extent. One of the most fundamental tasks in assuring success of a volunteer program is to understand volunteers’ preferences and design volunteer activities accordingly. Due to their roles, volunteers should be treated as an important customer group (Wymer, 2003). For many individuals, volunteering utilizes a significant percentage of nonworking time, which represents a willingness to dedicate one's discretionary time, for which many other activity choices compete (Gibson, 2006; Stebbins & Graham, 2004). Students with their enthusiasm and youth constitute a vast major for volunteer force. They become more and more proactive in volunteer work in events because their characteristics are suitable to this sector requiring flexibility and freshness. Although it was anticipated that opportunities involved with volunteer programs would be popular and that experience was rewarding and met student expectations, little is known about youth volunteer behavior (Auld, 2004). The literature of event also demonstrates the growth of investigating volunteer intention (e.g. Dickson, Darcy, Edwards, & Terwiel, 2015; Love, Hardin, Koo, & Morse, 2011; MacLean & Hamm, 2007), however, there is the lack of studies concerning this particular source of volunteer labor – students. So as to further understand the insight of this important labor, students’ self-image concept towards volunteering was examined to explore the inter-relationships between self-image congruency, students’ motivations and their intention of volunteering in tourism events and festivals. By filling this identified research gap, the research contributes to the literature of event management by evaluating the significance level of each motivation from students’ perspective. Furthermore, this study also strengthens the importance of self-image congruence as an antecedent of volunteer motivation and intention. Findings also allows event managers to create marketing campaigns which can effectively target, recruit, select and retain this valued source of volunteer labor, resulting in a more successful volunteer program administration. 2. Literature Review 2.1. Volunteering in Events Volunteering is defined as “any activities in which time is given freely to benefit another person, group, or organization” (Wilson, 2000, p. 215). Volunteering is a service without salary (Cnaan, Handy & Wadsworth, 1996) demanding a sense of duty on the part of volunteers regarding to time, effort, and skill development (Holmes, Smith, Lockstone-Binney & Baum, 2010). Stebbins (1982) conceptualizes volunteering as ‘a skill and knowledge-based activity in which people can have a career in a special social world’. This activity provides volunteers with the opportunity for socializing, improving professional competencies and interpersonal skills, as well as contributing to learning and personal development. Volunteers devote their leisure time to the public or client interests (Stebbins, 1992) and performs an unpaid and planned activity, within a formal structure (public, private, or non-profit), involving some type of time commitment (Gallarza, Arteaga & Gil-Saura, 2013). In order to guarantee the consistency throughout this study, volunteering is defined as ‘an unpaid activity where someone gives their time to help an organization or individual to whom they are not 219
3. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE FOR YOUNG RESEARCHERS IN ECONOMICS & BUSINESS 2019 ICYREB 2019 related’ (VolunteeringEngland, 2008, p. 1). In general, volunteers generally give a shorter commitment, and there is a lack of negative consequence if they resign before their work is completely finished (unlike paid staffs). 2.2. Theoretical Background of Research 2.2.1. Volunteer Intention According to Blau and Holladay (2006) and Mohamed, Taylor, and Hassan (2006), volunteer intention can be defined as planning to continue serving as a volunteering member and the strength of one’s conscious plans to be involved in subsequent volunteering activities. Moreover, an intention to volunteer for an event is a function of the perceived contribution of volunteering and the rewards an individual expects to receive as a result of volunteer experience (Bang, Won & Kim, 2009). Among various genres of outcomes in volunteerism, volunteer intention to continue volunteering should be primarily considered as a dependent factor of striking antecedents in volunteer studies (Clary et al., 1998) in comparison with other factors, such as volunteer satisfaction (Coghlan & Pearce, 2010) and volunteer experience (Pajo & Lee, 2011). Therefore, as one type of volunteer outcomes, identifying the intention to continue volunteering has been regarded as an vital issue in many organizational studies (Blau & Holladay, 2006; Mohamed et al., 2006). Organizational studies seemed inclined to focus on intention to leave as a consequence of a job in which turnover rates (intention to leave a job) for full-time employees is of concern. However, there is few research that has investigated the factors affecting individual’s intention to continue volunteering (Karl, Peluchette & Hall, 2008; Kim, Chelladurai & Trail, 2007), especially within tourism contexts (e.g., events and festivals). An effective way to steadily increase volunteers’ levels of intention is to match activities and responsibilities with individuals’ motivation to volunteer. Individuals whose motivations were met during a volunteering experience are more likely to state positive intention (Clary et al., 1998). 2.2.2. Volunteer Motivation In the literature on volunteering, various definitions of volunteer motivations have been proposed (Clary et al., 1998; Khoo & Engelhorn, 2011; Lai, Ren, Wu, & Hung, 2013; Pearce, 1983; Warner, Newland, & Green, 2011). Volunteer motivation can be defined as a drive of individuals to seek out volunteer opportunities, to commit themselves to voluntary helping, and to sustain their involvement in volunteerism over extended periods of time (Clary et al., 1998; Pearce, 1983). Regarding to the rational recognition of motivation, a number of studies within event management have strived to develop various types of measurement scales for volunteer motivation within in a special event context (Monga, 2006). The increasing interest of measurement issue for volunteer motivation have yielded the prominent measurement scales such as VFI (Volunteer Functions Inventory) suggested by Clary et al. (1998) and the SEVMS (Special Event Volunteer Motivation Scale) with the initiative of Farrell, Johnston, and Twynam (1998) in the domain of special events. In particular, Clary et al. (1998) identified six underlying motivations for volunteering. The values motive denotes the expression of personal values like altruism and humanitarianism. The understanding function refers to the seeking out of learning opportunities and the acquisition of knowledge and skills. The self-enhancement motive focuses on promoting a positive outlook through taking opportunities for personal growth. The career motive is associated with volunteering to help one’s career. The social motive reflects a response to the normative influences of one’s social network, and the protective motive functions as an approach to tackling personal problems or negative affect. For the smaller scale events, the analysis of the SEVMS items highlighted a strong sense of “purposiveness,” altruism, or a giving back to the community (Farrell et al., 1998; Giannoulakis, Stotlar, & Chatziefstathiou, 2008; Khoo & Engelhorn, 2011). 220
4. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE FOR YOUNG RESEARCHERS IN ECONOMICS & BUSINESS 2019 ICYREB 2019 Furthermore, Warner et al. (2011) suggest dimensions of volunteer motivation, such as contribution to society, contribution to the nation, tangible rewards, and challenging tasks. Other dimensions of motivations are also identified, including personal development (Lee et al., 2013), career orientation (Bang et al., 2009), leisure (Kwok, Chui, & Wong, 2013), interpersonal contacts (Bang et al., 2009), community concern (MacLean & Hamm, 2007), material/ extrinsic rewards (Bang et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2013; MacLean and Hamm, 2007). Due to the diversity of Da Nang tourism events and festivals in terms of both the scales and fields, in this study, it is suggested that there are the five major constructs that conceptualize volunteer motivation for participating: the self-development, career experiences, leisure, material rewards and community concern dimensions of motivation. 2.2.3. Self–Image Congruence Self-image congruence research originated in the 1960s (e.g., Birdwell, 1968; Grubb & Grathwohl, 1967; Hamm & Cundiff, 1969). It is important to note that self-congruence, self-image congruence, self- congruity, and self-concept are used interchangeably describe this phenomenon. In early studies, the self- congruency's operationalization was a one-dimensional construct (Bellenger, Steinberg, & Stanton, 1976; Birdwell, 1968; Green, Maheshwari, & Rao, 1969). Scholars challenge the traditional approach and posit a person might have multiple ‘selves’ (Markus & Nurius, 1986; Onkvisit & Shaw, 1987). Recent conceptualizations construe self-concept as a multi-dimensional construct (Sirgy, Grewal, & Mangleburg, 2000; Todd, 2001). The marketing literature identifies four dimensions of self-concept to explain and predict behavior: (1) actual self-concept (“me as I am”), how a person sees himself or herself; (2) ideal- self-concept (“the good me”), how a person would like to see himself or herself; (3) social self-concept, how consumers think others see them; (4) ideal social self-concept, how a person would like to be perceived by other people (Belch & Landon, 1977; Dolich, 1969; Hughes & Guerrero, 1971; Sirgy, 1982). According to Sirgy (1982), consumer researchers have generally used four aspects of self-image such as actual self-concept, social self-concept, ideal self-concept, and ideal social self-concept in explaining and predicting consumer behavior. However, the application of self-congruency in tourism research focuses mostly on actual self-concept. More empirical study is needed to examine the application of all the four dimensions of self-concept in the context of tourism (Sirgy & Su, 2000; Todd, 2001). Following the tourism literature (e.g., Beerli, Meneses, & Gil, 2007), this study uses the term self-image congruence to denote the match between volunteers ’self-concept (actual and ideal) and the image of other volunteers. With the recent inclusion of self-image congruency in consumer behavior of attendees in festivals and events (Gration, Raciti, & Arcodia, 2011), the need to explore this concept in the context of festival and event volunteers has been underlined, specifically concerning volunteers in large scale ones. Examining self-concept provides a deeper, more improved knowledge of the relationship between events and festivals and volunteers beyond motivation, and behavioral intention. 2.3. Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses Figure 1: Conceptual framework of study As Friese (2000) explains, “It can be inferred that the self-concept is a multi-dimensional, diverse, complex and dynamic structure, which is active, forceful, capable of change, and has motivational 221
5. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE FOR YOUNG RESEARCHERS IN ECONOMICS & BUSINESS 2019 ICYREB 2019 consequences” (p. 57). The self-image congruence of volunteers in festivals is important in terms of marketing toward and recruiting volunteers, volunteer satisfaction, and retaining volunteers. All contribute to overall festival success. In marketing, self-image congruence theory is an important part of attitude research and has widespread implications to consumer behavior. Self-image congruence plays a crucial role in influencing consumer behaviors (Kressmann et al., 2006; Sirgy, Johar, Samli, & Claiborne, 1991; Sirgy & Samli, 1985). For instance, researches find the affection of self-image congruence on advertising effectiveness (Bjerke & Polegato, 2006; Hong & Zinkhan, 1995), facilitating positive attitudes toward products/brands (Ekinci & Riley, 2003) as well as a multitude of other aspects such as consumers' choice (Quester et al., 2000), attitudes (Ibrahim & Najjar, 2008), perceived quality (Hee Kwak & Kang, 2009), brand preferences (Jamal & Goode, 2001), and brand loyalty (Kressmann et al., 2006). Similarly, the tourism literature recognizes self-concept's influence in modeling visitor behaviors. Chon (1992) examines the relationship between tourists' self-concept/destination image congruity and satisfaction and concludes self-image congruence affects satisfaction with destinations. Regarding event volunteering in particular, as a new emerging sector in tourism, there are few studies investigating the relationship between self-image congruence and motivation as well as behavioral intentions. Self-image congruency has recently found its way into the festival and event literature concerning the consumer behavior of attendees (Gration et al., 2011). Bachman, Norman, Hopkins, and Brookover (2016) confirmed the positive coefficient existed in the relationship between self-image congruency and motivation as well as continuance commitment in the context of a music festival. The above discussions frame the following hypotheses applied for students’ volunteer in events: Hypothesis 1 (H1): Self – image congruence has a positive influence on volunteer motivation. Hypothesis 2 (H2): Self – image congruence has a positive influence on volunteer intention Previous research by Knoke and Wright-Isak (1982) highlighted the need to understand volunteer motivation, commitment, and the influence of the experience on the intent to remain a volunteer (behavioral intention). A correlation between two of these factors, volunteer motivation and behavioral intention, has been found in the context of a large-scale women’s professional golf tournament in Canada (MacLean & Hamm, 2007). In sport events literature, there were initiatives looking at the idea of volunteer motivation and continuance commitment within volunteer administrators (Cuskelly, Harrington, & Stebbins, 2002). Pearce (1983) reports that the greater volunteer intrinsic, social, and service motivation, the greater job satisfaction and less intent to leave. In addition, Love et al. (2011) find a strong positive correlation between volunteer motivation (e.g., altruism, personal enrichment) and behavioral intentions with the context of sport events. Although motivation is divided into different dimensions depending on the event context, the relationship between volunteer motivation and intention is proved to be significant in a wide range of researches. Based on the literature above, this study proposes the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 3 (H3): Volunteer motivation has a positive influence on the volunteer intention. 3. Methodology 3.1. Research Instrument The survey instrument used in this research was adapted from existing scales have been found and validated extensively in prior research, included questions about self-image congruence (SIC), volunteer motivation (MOT), volunteer intention (VIN) as well as demographics such as gender, education (year of study and major), and detailed information about the possibility to become volunteers at tourism events in Da Nang in 2019 (see Appendix). Moreover, all respondents were asked about their previous volunteer experiences. In particular, self-image congruence was measured by four items: actual self-image, ideal self- image, social self-image, ideal social self-image (Sirgy, 1982). Volunteer motivation consists of 23-item scale, and all items adapted from the studies about motivation in the volunteer context, including: Bang et 222
6. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE FOR YOUNG RESEARCHERS IN ECONOMICS & BUSINESS 2019 ICYREB 2019 al. (2009), Dickson et al. (2015), Kwok et al. (2013), Lee et al. (2013), MacLean and Hamm (2007). Volunteer intention included two items cited from the study by Elstad (2003): “I am likely to be a volunteer at tourism events and festivals in Da Nang next year”, “I am likely to be a volunteer at tourism events and festivals in Da Nang in five years”. Respondents were asked to evaluate the level of agreement on all 29 measurement items using a seven-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). Adapting from the research by Alexander (2013), previous volunteer experience was measured on a yes (1) or no (2) response in which the two related questions were asked, including: “Have you done any volunteer work before?” and “Did you volunteer in tourism events and festivals in Da Nang in the past two years?”. In addition, respondents were also asked to provide their social-demographic information as well as previous volunteer intention. The content validity of measures was reviewed by an academic expert in tourism to access the applicability and representativeness of each measurement item. After that, a pilot study with a sample of 10 students was conducted to identify the weakness and refine the wording of measurement instrument. 3.2. Data Collection and Analysis A self-administered survey was carried out to collect data by non-probability sampling from students studying the universities in Da Nang. The questionnaire was divided into the following sections: (1) Previous volunteer experience, (2) Reasons to volunteer, (3) Volunteer intention, (4) Demographic. It was first developed in English and translated into Vietnamese. In order to ensure the consistency of meaning between two versions, the questionnaire was double-translated. In particular, the questionnaire was translated into Vietnam by an English-Vietnamese bilingual and then translated back to English by another. Data collection procedure was conducted through both forms: online and pen-and-paper. Online questionnaires were facilitated by Google Forms and delivered through Facebook – the most popular social network platform in Vietnam. The groups of students were selected based on the description provided on their profile. In terms of paper survey, students were approached and directly asked to fill in the questionnaires. According to Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, and Tatham (2006), the sample size should be at least five times larger than the number of variables for factor analysis. Due to the fact that the number of measurement items was 29, sample size was recommended to be at least 145 for this study. The survey was conducted within two months from February 2019 to March 2019. A total of 312 valid questionnaires were collected, including 195 online responses and 117 offline ones. Each question of the survey in Google platform was set as a required question. The respondents could not submit the survey if they did not answer any required questions. Therefore, all the questions must be filled in before being submitted. Regarding to pen-and-paper survey, respondents are carefully required to pay attention that fill in all the questions. After they finished the survey, the collector re- checked to guarantee that all questions were finished. As a result, no missing value was recorded for the data set of 312 cases in this study. After being collected, the data was analyzed through the procedure including four steps as illustrated in Figure 2 below. Figure 2: Data analysis procedure 223
7. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE FOR YOUNG RESEARCHERS IN ECONOMICS & BUSINESS 2019 ICYREB 2019 In particular, the collected data was put to Excel file before exported into IBM SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) 22.0. In the following step, unengaged responses and extreme multivariate outliers were deleted, and eventually 302 cases were retained. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted to identify the structure of potential latent variables and reduce a data set of variables to manageable size. Afterwards, by the software of SmartPLS 3.0, the Partial Least Square - Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was applied to examine the measurement model and structural model in this study. Criteria for these assessments were carefully considered to ensure the reliability and validity of both measurement and structural model. 4. Findings 4.1. Profile of Respondents The sample of 302 respondents, who are studying at the universities in the area of Da Nang illustrates the abundance of demographic information in term of gender, year of study, university and major. As shown in Table 1, the female participants outnumbered the male participants (68.2% compared to 31.8%). Regarding to the educational level, there were quite similar proportions of respondents being second year, third year and fourth year students, which were 29.8%, 29.5% and 28.1% of the total respondents, respectively. By contrast, only three respondents were studying fifth year at the universities. This is reasonable because most of the universities in Da Nang require four-year training system in their educational standard. The remaining figure is freshmen, which constituted a minority (11.6%). The proportion of people who was studying at University of Economics made up the highest percentage of the total (83.4%). Students from other universities just occupied totally nearly one-fifth of the respondents. There were less respondents majoring in Tourism and Hospitality (22.5%) than those pursuing other careers (77.5%). Table 1: Background Profile of Respondents for the Main Study Group n % Group n % Gender University Male 96 31.8 University of Economics 252 83.4 Female 206 68.2 Duy Tan University 7 2.3 Year of study University of Foreign Language Studies 29 9.6 First year 35 11.6 University of Science and Technology 8 2.6 Second year 90 29.8 University of Education 3 1 Third year 89 29.5 Others 3 1 Fourth year 85 28.1 Volunteer works Fifth year 3 1 Experienced 277 91.7 Tourism majoring Non-experienced 25 8.3 Yes 68 22.5 Volunteer in tourism events No 234 77.5 Experienced 151 50 Non-experienced 151 50 In terms of volunteering profile of respondents, a yes or no response was required, with the majority reporting that they had volunteered previously (91.7%). In addition, the results demonstrated the equal division between the number of respondents who used to volunteer in tourism events and that of those who did not (50% for each group). This implies that there was a fair division of groups of experienced and non-experienced tourism events volunteers in this study. 4.2. Factor Analysis 4.2.1. Exploratory factor analysis Exploratory factor analysis was carried out on twenty-nine measurement items with the extraction method of maximum likelihood factoring and varimax rotation used. Initially, eight dimensions were 224
8. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE FOR YOUNG RESEARCHERS IN ECONOMICS & BUSINESS 2019 ICYREB 2019 extracted with eigenvalues >1. Nevertheless, one items of “Volunteer motivation” construct (Volunteering is to explore my own strengths (MOT4)), which loaded on two factors, were deleted because of the criteria about cross loadings. A second EFA analysis was then conducted on the remaining twenty-eight items. At this time, another item of “Volunteer motivation” construct, which is “Volunteering provides an opportunity to work with people from different age groups and/or backgrounds” (MOT9), had the factor loading lower than 0.4, and thereby being eliminated. As a result, EFA analysis procedure indicates that six of all factors with twenty-seven items should be retained. The conditions applied for conducting EFA were verified carefully for the analysis. Firstly, the Kaisere–Meyere–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) value was 0.891 exceeding the recommended value of 0.6 (Kaiser and Rice, 1974), and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity with χ2 = 4327.651 achieved statistical significance (p = 0.000) (Bartlett, 1954). The communalities of all items satisfied the minimum requirement, with all the values above 0.3 (Kaiser, 1974). As a result, the sample size was sufficient for factor analysis. The twenty-seven measurement items with greater than 0.4 factor loadings (ranging from 0.412 to 0.873) were extracted into six factors (Table 2). Out of them, two factors were labeled as ‘self-image congruence’ and ‘volunteer intention’ as proposed single-dimension constructs. Other four factors were considered as four components of ‘volunteer motivation’ which were named as ‘Material rewards’, ‘Career experience and leisure motivation’, ‘Event concerns’ and ‘Self-development’. All the extracted factors had eigenvalues greater than 1 explaining approximately 56% of total variance (Table 2). The changes of numbers of factors after an EFA leads to the modification of proposed conceptual framework and corresponding hypotheses discussed above in section 2.3. Figure 3 presents a modified framework of the study with nine hypotheses. Note: SIC=Self-image Congruence, MOT_01=Material rewards motivation, MOT_02=Career experience and leisure motivation, MOT_03=Event concerns motivation, MOT_04=Self-development motivation, VIN=Volunteer Intention Figure 3: Modified conceptual framework after EFA Cronbach’s alpha was computed to examine the internal consistency of five factors in the model. All of the factors had the Cronbach’s alpha value of higher than 0.7, indicating the acceptable reliability as suggested by (Nunnally, 1978). 225
9. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE FOR YOUNG RESEARCHERS IN ECONOMICS & BUSINESS 2019 ICYREB 2019 Table 2: EFA and measurement evaluation of factors EFA CFA Components/ Items Factor Eigen- Explained Cronbach's Outer CR AVE Loadings values variance Alpha loadings Self-image congruence 1.549 4.565 0.814 0.877 0.642 The way I saw volunteers at Da Nang tourism events and festivals is consistent with how I SIC1_ see myself (Actual self-image) 0.654 0.825 SIC2_ want to see of myself (Ideal self-image) 0.682 0.787 SIC3_ believe others see me (Social self-image) 0.710 0.822 SIC4_ would like others to see me (Ideal social self-image) 0.716 0.769 Volunteer motivation's dimension 1: Material rewards 9.499 32.655 0.858 0.897 0.595 MOT13_ Certificate of volunteering experience will look good on my resume 0.598 0.729 MOT14_ Volunteering at Da Nang tourism events is considered prestigious 0.588 0.818 MOT15_ Volunteering is to make new contacts that might help my future career 0.585 0.770 MOT16_ My university will give me an extra bonus/credit for volunteering in tourism events 0.611 0.643 MOT17_ Complimentary items are offered to volunteers after the events 0.751 0.841 MOT 18_ Volunteers are offered free tickets to the festivals and events 0.632 0.809 Volunteer motivation's dimension 2: Career experience and leisure 2.249 5.423 0.824 0.869 0.487 MOT5_ Volunteering helps me work through my own personal problems 0.534 0.658 MOT6_ Volunteering allows me to explore different career options 0.575 0.731 226 MOT7_ Volunteering allows me to gain a new perspective on knowledge that I learned from school 0.477 0.696 MOT8_ Volunteering is a way to relieve the stress of my study 0.552 0.759 MOT10_ Volunteering provides me the excitement 0.496 0.772 MOT11_ Volunteering is a good escape from the boring daily life 0.595 0.657 MOT12_ Volunteering makes me less lonely 0.586 0.597 Volunteer motivation's dimension 3: Event concerns 1.835 6.078 0.870 0.907 0.662 MOT19_ I want to make valuable contribution to Da Nang tourism events and festival 0.807 0.844 MOT20_ I want to contribute to the success of Da Nang tourism event or festival 0.873 0.854 MOT21_ I consider myself to be a person get involved in tourism events and festivals 0.480 0.817 MOT22_ I am genuinely concerned about the events I will volunteer 0.412 0.776 MOT23_ I believe hospitality student’s volunteering to be good for Da Nang tourism events 0.476 0.772 Volunteer motivation's dimension 4: Self-development 1.280 4.056 0.826 0.900 0.751 MOT1_ Volunteering is gain skills 0.764 0.908 MOT2_ Volunteering is to gain practical experiences 0.801 0.900 MOT3_ Volunteering is to broaden my horizons 0.583 0.786 Volunteer intention 1.222 3.177 0.836 0.924 0.859 VIN1_ I am likely to be a volunteer at tourism events and festivals in Da Nang next year 0.762 0.922 VIN2_ I am likely to be a volunteer at tourism events and festivals in Da Nang in five years 0.748 0.932 KMO = 0.891, χ2 = 4327.651, p < 0.001 Note: EFA = Exploratory factor analysis; KMO = Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure; χ2 = Bartlett’s test of sphericity; CFA = Confirmatory factor analysis, CR = Composite reliability, AVE = Average variance extracted.
10. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE FOR YOUNG RESEARCHERS IN ECONOMICS & BUSINESS 2019 ICYREB 2019 4.2.2. Measurement Model Evaluation A procedure for measurement model evaluation using Smart PLS 3.0 was carried out for six components which were extracted from twenty-seven items after an EFA. The results were concluded based on the criteria set for reflective measurement model evaluation suggested by (J. Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2016). Firstly, composite reliability (CR) – the criterion for assessing the instrument’s internal consistency reliability, was examined. As can be seen from Table 2, all CR values of six constructs, including self-image congruence, material rewards motivation, career experience and leisure motivation, self-development motivation, and event concerns motivation were above the recommended value 0.7 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994), indicating the high internal consistency reliability. In other words, it could be evident that all six constructs were well measured by their items. Secondly, convergent validity was assessed depending on two criteria: outer loadings and average variance extracted (AVE). For the first criteria, the outer loadings of all indicators are also depicted in Table 2. As can be seen obviously, almost factor loadings of measurement items were greater than the threshold value of 0.7 (Hulland, 1999). The factor loading of the MOT12 was 0.597, which was much lower than the minimum requirement value of 0.7. The deletion of this item can enhance AVE index of its associated construct (MOT_02), from 0.487 to 0.513. Other items consisting of MOT5, MOT7, MOT10, and MOT16, which had outer loadings ranging from 0.643 to 0.696, were retained in the measurement scale because the deletion of these items did not make any significant increasing to both of the CR and AVE values of their constructs. After removing MOT12, all of the indicators for the six constructs had the acceptable level of outer loadings that met the first criterion of convergent validity. The other criterion – average variance extracted (AVE) – should exceed the threshold of 0.5, demonstrating that constructs explained the majority of the variances as suggested by Fornell and Larcker (1981). After elimination of MOT12, results showed that the AVE values of all of the constructs were higher than 0.5, ranging from 0.513 to 0.859. To sum up, the measures of all six constructs with 26 items demonstrated convergent validity in high levels. Finally, in order to examine the discriminant validity, the square root of AVE for each construct was compared to its correlation values with other factors (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Results shown in Table 3 indicated the adequate discriminant validity of all six constructs in the model. In summary, all evaluation of criteria for the measurement model was completed, which satisfied the reliability, convergent and discriminant validity of all measures. Table 3: Fornell- Larcker Criterion Constructs SIC MOT_01 MOT_02 MOT_03 MOT_04 VIN SIC 0.771 MOT_01 0.556 0.716 MOT_02 0.612 0.593 0.813 MOT_03 0.422 0.587 0.442 0.866 MOT_04 0.423 0.316 0.347 0.308 0.801 VIN 0.442 0.434 0.485 0.271 0.404 0.927 Note: SIC=Self-image Congruence, MOT_01=Material rewards motivation, MOT_02=Career experience and leisure motivation, MOT_03=Event concerns motivation, MOT_04=Self-development motivation, VIN=Volunteer Intention The bold diagonal elements are calculated by the square root of the AVEs and non- bold off-diagonal elements are latent variable correlations 227
11. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE FOR YOUNG RESEARCHERS IN ECONOMICS & BUSINESS 2019 ICYREB 2019 4.3. Structural Model Evaluation 4.3.1. Evaluation of Structural Model Path Coefficients Table 4 demonstrates the results of coefficients, the corresponding t-values, p-values in the conceptual framework. Each path relationship was examined through regression coefficients (β). The estimation of significance of β values is based on t-value, which was obtained using the Bootstrap procedure with 302 cases and 5000 resamples. After this stage, it is concluded that seven out of nine hypotheses of direct relationships between constructs were supported. The path coefficient is considered significant if the empirical t-value is greater than 1.65 at significant level of 10%, 1.96 at a significant level of 5% and 2.57 at a significant level of 1% (J. Hair et al., 2016). Accordingly, the causal links from two dimensions of volunteer motivation to volunteer intention were insignificant with the t-values lower than 1.65. Particularly, the direct relationship between material rewards motivation and volunteer intention was insignificant with = 0.113, t = 1.433, p > 0.1. Similarly, self-development motivation was not recognized to be a predictor of volunteer intention with the corresponding = -0.071, t = 1.088, p > 0.1. These findings indicated that two hypotheses H3a, H3d were not supported with empirical evidence. On the other hand, the results proved the hypothesized relationships between self-image congruence and two other constructs: volunteer motivation and volunteer intention. Firstly, in terms of four dimensions of volunteer motivation (material rewards, career experience and leisure, event concerns, and self-development motivation), the empirical t-values of the relationship between SIC and MOT_01, SIC and MOT_02, SIC and MOT_03, and SIC and MOT_04 were respectively 7.164, 4.969, 5.884 and 5.277, which were all greater than 2.57 at the significant value of 1%. Regarding direct effects between self-image congruence and volunteer intention, self-image congruence served as an antecedent in anticipating volunteer intention ( = 0.229, t = 4.039, p < 0.01). In addition, the effect of career experience and leisure motivation and event concerns motivation on volunteer intention was confirmed. In particular, career experience and leisure motivation was found as a forecaster of volunteer intention ( = 0.188, t = 2.663, p <0.01). On top of that, it is explored that event concerns motivation positively affected students’ intention to participate volunteer works with t-values 3.389 at significant level of 1%. Out of three determinants of volunteer intention explored in this study (self-image congruence and two dimensions of volunteer motivation), event concerns motivation had the largest impact on volunteer intention with the highest β value of 0.256. In summary, the hypotheses H1a, H1b, H1c, H1d, H2, H3b, and H3c were supported in this study. Table 4: Structural Model Evaluation Path Path relation (Hypothesis) t-value p-value Result coefficient H1a: Self-image congruence → Material rewards motivation 0.050 1.013ns 0.311 Rejected H1b: Self-image congruence → Career experience and leisure motivation 0.338 5.521 0.000 Supported H1c: Self-image congruence → Event concerns motivation 0.440 7.958 0.000 Supported H1d: Self-image congruence → Self-development motivation 0.151 2.701 0.007 Supported H2: Self-image congruence → Volunteer intention 0.174 3.212 0.001 Supported H3a: Material rewards motivation → Volunteer intention -0.010 0.226ns 0.822 Rejected 228
12. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE FOR YOUNG RESEARCHERS IN ECONOMICS & BUSINESS 2019 ICYREB 2019 H3b: Career experience and leisure motivation → Volunteer intention -0.106 2.607 0.009 Supported H3c: Event concerns motivation → Volunteer intention 0.597 12.469 0.000 Supported H3d: Self-development motivation → Volunteer intention 0.394 6.310 0.000 Supported Note: ns non-significant, p < 0.01 4.3.2. Coefficient of Determination (R2 value) The coefficient of determination (R2 value), a measurement of the predictive accuracy of the model (J. Hair et al., 2016), is the next criteria needing verifying. This coefficient represents the amount of explained variance of each endogenous latent variable. The R2 values – 0.67, 0.33, 0.19 – demonstrate a substantial, moderate or weak level of predictive accuracy, respectively (Chin, 1998). There were five endogenous constructs in this study. However, according to the purpose of this research, the coefficient of determination (R2) of one endogenous latent variable (volunteer intention) in the proposed model was examined. The results indicate that three variables including self-image congruence, career experience and leisure motivation, and event concerns motivation explained 31.8% of the total variance associated with the dependent variable – volunteer intention. Because this is a study related to behavior/intention, this R2 value is considered to be in a moderate level of predictive accuracy (Byrne, 2001). 5. Implications and Conclusions 5.1. Theoretical Implications Adapting from the volunteer motivation framework, volunteer motivation was confirmed as the multi-dimensional construct with four factors including material rewards, career experience & leisure, event concerns, and self-development. These motivational factors, therefore, consolidate the foundation for future empirical studies into volunteer motivation toward events related to tourism. In addition, the findings also provide the understanding the interrelationship between self-image congruence – volunteer motivation – volunteer intentions in the context of tourism events. This result is consistent with previous studies into these three constructs in the similar context by Bachman et al. (2016). Specifically, within four motivational dimensions explored, the research findings indicated that only two factors of career experience & leisure, event concerns are found to create positive influences on volunteer intention to continue or start volunteering for tourism events festivals in the future within a community. This is inconsistent with the theoretical indicators in past researches which illustrate that volunteer intention alters depending on personal development motivation (Wang, 2006) or extrinsic rewards (Bang et al., 2009). This can be explained by two main reasons: (i) the features of respondents and (ii) the genres of events considered. In more details, while previous studies attempted to analyze experienced volunteers from all ages as the sample groups at a particular type of event (e.g. sport events), this study focuses on potential volunteers or non-experienced students in volunteering as sample populations in diverse areas of events. The students who are strongly motivated by event concerns are more likely to have intention of volunteering in tourism events in the future. This is the factor considered to be the most important motivation encouraging students to taking part in volunteer activities. Following that, students whose volunteer motivations rely on career experience & leisure also declare a high intention of volunteering. These results supported the previous studies by MacLean and Hamm (2007) and Lee et al. (2013). Both suggested that volunteer intention would be connected to the involvements in events themselves and the leisure volunteers can get. However, the current research indicates a new aspect of motivation which is career-related experience can be the antecedent of volunteer intention. Although this was identified as a dimension of volunteer motivation by Kwok et al. (2013), it was only seen as a predictor of satisfaction instead of volunteer intention in this study. 229
13. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE FOR YOUNG RESEARCHERS IN ECONOMICS & BUSINESS 2019 ICYREB 2019 5.2. Practical Implications Within the limited budgets of local areas, volunteering workforce is a crucial contributor to the success of tourism events and festivals. Regarding practical and managerial implications, the empirical results of this study provide valuable information for event organizers as well as host communities to plan strategies which are suitable to student volunteers’ demands and motivation. First, determining volunteer applicant self-image congruency through the measure used in this study provide insight and predictive capabilities into a volunteer’s motivation and intent to take part in volunteering in the future. The existence of self-image congruency in the model demonstrates that when events’ image is congruent with self-image of volunteers/potential volunteers, programs are likely to attract more good volunteers as well as enhancing their return rate, which increase the likelihood to provide great improvements in the efficient and effectiveness of events. This implies that in every event/festival, managers as well as event organizers should invest more in volunteer training in order to make volunteers become authentic ambassadors of events and deliver the soul and characteristics of events for their friends, who can be potential volunteers in the future. To sum up, this emphasizes that the ability of events to deliver their images to the volunteers is one of the most vital factors contributing to the success of events. Second, the note-worth paths were the direct relationships between dimensions of motivation and volunteer intention (H3). Although self-image congruence directly encourages students’ motivation leading to behavioral intention, there are only two of them (career experience & leisure motivation and event concerns motivation) which positively impact on volunteer intention. Moreover, motivation related to self-development and material rewards are found to be decisive factors in whether students volunteer in tourism events or not. This reveals that much time and resources should be used in the volunteer recruitment campaigns. In these projects, event organizers should offer benefits such as contacts and external relationship which volunteers can gain when they become a part of events. Career opportunities should also be provided for volunteers who had outstanding performance. This not only helps excellent individuals to embark their occupation in event industry but also attract young generations to volunteer. Hospitable atmosphere should also be provided as a plus point in volunteering instead of extinctive advantages related to materials. 5.3. Limitations and suggestions for future research Though the study makes a contribution to both theoretical and managerial perspectives, limitations should be acknowledged, and thereby providing recommendations for future research. The most prominent limitation lies in the sampling and data administration method. This means that there was not the balance between the quantities of participants learning tourism major and others. Students majoring tourism and event just accounted for the minority of the total respondents. In light of this limitation, future researches should collect a larger sample for the student group majoring event management. In other words, students studying the event management major should be more focused in exploring their intention of event volunteering because they are potential employees in event companies in the future. Second, this study mainly concentrates on volunteer motivation in terms of instinctive or personal factors without mentioning objective ones. Therefore, apart from self-image congruence and internal motivations (e.g. career experience and leisure, self-development), further researches should analyze external factors enhancing the likelihood of volunteering in students such as event-related factors. They could be the perceived event image in the community, event promotion campaigns, etc. Except for suggestions based on mentioned limitations, the results of this study also imply the other idea for researches in the future. Specifically, the further research is recommended to apply the tested model of this study to investigate the behavioral intention towards a specific event such as music, sport or environmental events. 230
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