Kinh tế vùng nông thôn ở Việt Nam đến phát triển bền vững và hợp đồng thương mại miền nam Việt Nam

Nội dung text: Kinh tế vùng nông thôn ở Việt Nam đến phát triển bền vững và hợp đồng thương mại miền nam Việt Nam

1. COASTAL ECONOMICS IN VIETNAM TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND VIETNAM-EUROPEAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT KINH TẾ VÙNG NÔNG THÔN Ở VIỆT NAM ĐẾN PHÁT TRIỂN BỀN VỮNG VÀ HỢP ĐỒNG THƯƠNG MẠI MIỀN NAM VIỆT NAM ThS. Nguyễn Nguyệt Nga – Trường Đại học Thương mại TS. Trần Thị Minh Hằng – Trường Đại học Tài Nguyên và Môi trường Abstract Vietnam is a major coastal nation in Southeast Asia, with more than 3,200 kilometers of coastline. The coastal area supports the country’s fastest economic development, with coastal activities contributing to more than 48% of the country’s annual GDP. Rapid development of the coastal area is accompanied by problems such as ecosystem degradation, overpopulation and pollution. In the context of international integration progress, the new generation free trade agreements such as Vietnam-European Free Trade Agreement (EVFTA) often include articles relating to environment protection. The country has expended much effort in moving towards sustainable development of its coastal environment. This article reviews Vietnam’s development of coastal management. Thus, it suggests future considerations for a more effective and suitable coastal management strategy, towards in the requirements of EVFTA and the international integration progress. Key words: coastal economy, sustainable development, EVFTA Tóm tắt: Việt Nam là một quốc gia ven biển ở Đông Nam Á, với hơn 3.200 km bờ biển. Khu vực ven biển giúp cho nền kinh tế của cả nước phát triển nhanh nhất, với các hoạt động ven biển đóng góp hơn 48% vào GDP hàng năm. Sự phát triển nhanh chóng của khu vực ven biển thường đi kèm với các vấn đề như suy thoái hệ sinh thái, dân cư quá tải và ô nhiễm môi trường. Trong bối cảnh tiến trình hội nhập quốc tế, các hiệp định thương mại tự do thế hệ mới như Hiệp định Thương mại Tự do Việt Nam - EU (EVFTA) bao gồm các điều khoản liên quan đến vấn đề bảo vệ môi trường. Nước ta đã nỗ lực hết sức trong việc hướng tới sự phát triển bền vững của môi trường ven biển. Bài viết này đánh giá sự phát triển của Việt Nam trong vấn đề quản lý bờ biển. Từ đó, đề xuất những cân nhắc trong tương lai cho một chiến lược quản lý bờ biển phù hợp và hiệu quả hơn, hướng tới các yêu cầu của EVFTA và tiến trình hội nhập quốc tế. Từ khóa: Kinh tế ven biển, phát triển bền vững, EVFTA Introduction Vietnam is a major marine nation in Southeast Asia. Its total exclusive economic zone reaches about 1 million square kilometers, or three times its land area. Lying along the coastline are 12 lagoons, 44 coastal bays, and 114 river mouths and estuaries (VNICZM, 2006). The coastal areas are also home to many valuable ecosystems, including 110,680 hectares of mangrove forest, 108,500 hectares of coastal wetland, 7,532 hectares of coral reef, and 4,600 hectares of seagrass (NEA, 2005). 427
2. Vietnam’s coast is one of the most densely populated regions in Southeast Asia; consequently, the area has been heavily exploited. The country has 28 coastal provinces and over 125 coastal districts, and according to Le and Nguyen (2008), 31% of the total population (25 million) is located in coastal areas and generates more than 80% of the nation’s wealth. The livelihoods of about 20 million Vietnamese people depend on coastal and marine resources (Nguyen, 2009b). The development of industrial activities, tourism, aquaculture, agriculture, ports, and shipping has generally been concentrated in the coastal areas. In 2005, for example, 18.8 million tons of oil and more than 6.5 billion metric tons of gas were produced, earning the nation US$7.5 billion. Vietnam’s exploited oil production is increasing by about 30% per year (Nguyen, 2009b), and the country’s marine and coastal zone currently contributes up to 48% of its GDP (VNICZM, 2006). However, the increasing trend of coastal development poses great threats to the environment. The country is facing many environmental problems such as overfishing, biodiversity loss, destroyed and degraded habitats and ecosystems, pollution, natural hazards, frequent oil spills, and severe climate change impacts. Together with sectoral management practices, these obstacles have created conflicts in the multiple use and management of coastal and marine areas; hence, the government is strengthening national policies for coastal and marine development and management. These areas should be managed and monitored in an integrated manner in order to balance social needs, economic growth, and conservation (Nguyen, 2009a). The EU-Vietnam free trade agreement (EVFTA) is one of the new generation free trade agreements. This agreement is expected to take effect from 2018. There are 21 chapters in the EVFTA, in which 4 chapter regarding to environmental problems such as Technical Barries to Trade, Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, Non-tariff barriers to trade and investment in renewable energy generation and Trade and Sustainable Development. Among these chapters, Chapter 15 in the EVFTA focuses on Trade and Sustainable Development, sustainable management of living marine resources and aquaculture products, biological diversity and investment favouring sustainable development. This paper attempts to review Vietnam’s coastal management and economics and analyze the Vietnamese government’s active efforts to implement a more effective and integrated coastal management system towards EVFTA. 1. Current status of vietnam’s coastal area 1.1. Coastal socioeconomic development The range of the country’s physical environments creates a number of distinct coastal ecosystems that present different characteristics and potential for economic development and resource usage. Approximately 11,000 species of marine organisms have been recorded in this area, including over 2,038 species of fish. Commercial fish stocks are estimated at about 3 million tons distributed across 15 large fishing grounds (MOF, 2005). In addition, coastal 428
3. waters and intertidal zones are also known to support 6,000 benthic species, 653 seaweed species, 657 zooplankton species, 537 phytoplankton species, 94 mangrove plant species, 225 shrimp species, 43 seabird species, 15 sea snail species, 14 seagrass species, 12 marine mammal species, and 5 marine turtle species (Nguyen, 2009a). Vietnam’s rich coastal zone provides a number of development opportunities for different economic sectors and coastal communities. In 2005, coastal and marine economies contributed to 48% of national GDP, with 22% arriving mainly from oil and gas, fisheries, navigation, and tourism activities (VNICZM, 2006). It is estimated that the key coastal ecosystems in Vietnam provide returns of about US$60 million to US$80 million per year, while fish and lumber income from mangroves alone has been estimated at about US$6,000 per year (ADB, 2002). Biologists estimate that Vietnam’s total annual marine production is between 3 million and 4 million tons, while the annual allowable catch is between 1.2 million and 1.4 million tons (Nguyen and Ho, 2003). Further, the number of Vietnamese people involved in the fisheries sector was about 730,000 in 1996, and was estimated to reach up to 2-3 million in 2000 (Pho, 2007). Vietnam is one of four Southeast Asian countries in the top 10 exporters of aquaculture products (MOF, 2005). In 2004, the country exported around 315,000 tons of giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon), with a total of about 902,900 hectares of coastal area utilized (NEA, 2005). The potential for aquaculture production in Vietnam is reflected by the government’s intention to double production to 1.1 million tons within the next decade. Oil and gas are important natural resources found on Vietnam’s continental shelf, with total reserves of about 10 billion tons of oil and 300 billion cubic meters of gas. In 2005, 18.8 million tons of oil and more than 6.5 billion metric tons of gas were produced, contributing US$7.5 billion to national exported GDP. Oil production is increasing by 30% per year. Besides oil and gas, coastal areas also provide many heavy mineral deposits, constructive materials, and about 50,000 hectares of salt fields (Nguyen, 2009b). Coal exploitation activities in the coastal provinces are concentrated in Quang Ninh province; in 2003, coal output was about 18.3 million tons (VNICZM, 2004). In addition, Vietnam has great potential to develop seaports and a navigation sector along its long coastline. At present, there are 106 large and small ports comprising nearly 24,000 meters of quays and 10 trans-shipping zones. The total land area for storage and other activities at the ports is up to 10 million square meters, and there are currently eight national multifunction coastal ports, including Cai Lan, Hai Phong, Cua Lo, Da Nang, Quy Nhon, Nha Trang, Vung Tau, and Dung Quat (VNICZM, 2004). Vietnam’s coastal areas have experienced rapid tourism sector growth since the 1980s. According to the Annual Statistic Book of 2004, the number of tourists visiting coastal areas doubled from 10,000 in 2000 to 20,000 in 2005. More than 70% of the leisure and tourist destinations in Vietnam are located in the coastal areas, attracting 80% of visiting tourists. Annually, the increasing rate of coastal tourism is about 10% to 15% (NEA, 2005). 429
4. In spite of their economic contribution, Vietnam’s coastal districts also represent about 14% of the country's poorest communities, totaling a population of about 1.8 million. Coastal areas are vulnerable to annual flooding and typhoons that affect the lives of millions of inhabitants. Living conditions in these coastal communities are worsened by poor infrastructure and limited access to social facilities and markets. Households in these poor communes depend mainly on inshore fishing, agricultural activities in sandy coastal soils, or low-yielding aquaculture for their livelihoods. Since the regulations and enforcement necessary to protect and manage productive coastal natural resources are still inadequate and inappropriate, these inhabitants tend to use environmentally and economically unsustainable methods of exploiting resources. As a result, coastal natural resources are severely reduced and overexploited. Poverty remains the most serious problem in coastal communities (ADB, 2003). 1.2. Current coastal problems Economic development in Vietnam’s coastal areas has been contributing significantly to national GDP. However, fast economic development, together with unplanned and unsustainable utilization and exploitation, can cause severe damage to coastal resources and the environment, creating many social problems. The trend of natural resource degradation has shown a dramatic increase recently. Vietnam has lost more than 80% of its mangrove forests due to the high demands of shrimp farming development (Fig. 1). Other causes include conversion to agricultural and construction land and fuel wood collection. Mangrove forest losses are highest in the Quang Ninh and Hai Phong provinces. Between 1960 and 1995, these two provinces witnessed the disappearance of 40,000 hectares of mangrove forest. It was estimated that the annual loss in terms of forgone benefits of mangrove functions (e.g. fishery, forestry, and erosion) could be in the range of US$10 million to US$32 million per year (MONRE, 2002).Seagrass areas continue to be degraded and reduced in total area, with 63% (6,774 hectares) of seagrass area lost since 1997. The hot spots of seagrass degradation are Ha Long Bay and Tam Giang – Cau Hai Lagoon (VNICZM, 2006). Fig. 1 Mangrove loss in Vietnam from 1987-1999 430
5. The condition of coral reefs is also declining; 96% of Vietnam’s reefs are severely threatened by human activities, and of this, 75% are extremely threatened. Studies conducted between 1994 and 1997 in 142 sites conclude that only 1% of the country’s reefs are in excellent condition (Vo, 2005) (Table 1). The main threats to the reefs are destructive fishing methods, overfishing, sedimentation, and pollution from territorial sources. Destructive fishing practices, such as the use of poison and dynamite, threaten as much as 85% of the country’s reefs. Overfishing is a pervasive threat to more than 60% of the reefs, while sediment from upland sources is estimated to threaten 50% (NEA, 2005). Table 1. Status of Vietnam’s coral reef health between 1994 and 1997 Category Definition % Area Excellent >75% live coral 1 Good 50-70% live coral 26 Medium 25-50% live coral 41 Bad <25% live coral 31 Although marine catch doubled from 700,000 tons in 1991 to 1.5 million tons in 2001, qualitative evidence indicates that fishery resources within Vietnam’s exclusive economic zone (EEZ) are on the decline. While catches increased over the past 15 years, the overall catch-per-unit effort declined steadily over the same period. There has also been a shift in the catch size distribution toward smaller fish (MOF, 2005) (Fig. 2). Fig. 2 Fisheries catch and catch per unit effort (CPUE) in Vietnam from 1981-2005 Coastal water quality has been deteriorating rapidly. Urbanization, port and marine transport development, coastal tourism expansion, excess nutrient discharge, and oil spills 431
6. are all factors contributing to the deterioration of coastal water quality and threatening Vietnam’s marine ecosystems. The oil concentration in some areas of coastal water exceeds the limit standard, as does the pesticide content in northern seawater. Some cases of red tide due to eutrophication of harmful algae with a concentration of 2x104 cells of algae/liter of seawater have been reported recently (NEA, 2005). These lead to massive losses of aquaculture and affect the health of coral reefs and many other marine species. Decreases in abundance and even local extinctions of some species have been reported. Eighty-five marine species are at endangered status, of which 65 are now listed in the Vietnam Red Book; nevertheless, they continue to be exploited rapidly (Nguyen, 2002b). According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Vietnam is one of five countries in the world that will be seriously impacted by climate change and rises in sea level (MONRE, 2009). If the sea level rose one meter, 11% of the Vietnamese population living mainly on the deltas would be affected; at five meters, about 16% of the coastal land area would be submerged under water, and about 35% of the population and 35% of the total GDP would be affected (Nguyen, 2009b). More appropriate approaches to coastal and marine management are required to address the above-mentioned problems. Policies must be developed at the national level and implemented at the local level, and the Vietnamese government has been putting efforts into reaching technical, financial, and legislative solutions to improve coastal and marine management. 2. Vietnam’s coastal management and economics efforts The Vietnamese people have lived along the coasts for centuries and have expended much effort in conquering the sea and reclaiming coastal areas for agriculture and aquaculture development. Coastal environments and natural resources have direct importance for millions of people, especially those living in coastal districts or on near- shore islands. Vietnam has therefore undertaken a number of protective measures to manage its coastal areas. The country’s coastal management development can be divided into three phases: before 1986, 1986 to 2008, and 2008 to present. 2.1. Stage 1: Before Doi Moi (renovation) 1986 The period of French colonial rule (1859 to 1954) had little impact on the governance of coastal management and fisheries. Although decrees issued in 1904 and 1905 stripped Vietnamese kings of their supreme ownership of national properties, including coastal waters, traditional community-based fisheries management continued to dominate (Nguyen, 1995). During the post-colonial era (1954 to 1975), conditions differed in the former Democratic Republic of Vietnam in the north and the Republic of Vietnam in the south. In the former, coastal waters belonged to the state, low-level communes governed local waters, and fishery production was collectivized. In the south, ownership rights remained unchanged, and fisheries were taxed by village governments. With reunification in 1975, the government initially extended the northern system nationwide (Ruddle, 1998). 432
7. Although Vietnam is a maritime nation, the formulation of its policies for coastal and marine management started relatively late, and society had little awareness of the role of national policies for sustainable coastal and marine development. In the beginning, due to a lack of infrastructure and manpower and a limited knowledge of sea and coastal areas, policies focused mainly on developing a framework for Vietnam’s jurisdiction and sovereign rights over its sea area and for the investigation and assessment of ocean and coastal resources for economic development. Some of the policies are mentioned in the 1977 government statement on sovereignty and sovereign rights over the territorial sea, contiguous zone, 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone, continental shelf, and the Spratly and Paracel archipelagos in the South China Sea (GOV, 1982). However, together with increasing international awareness of environmental protection, the Vietnamese government has started to recognize the importance of protecting and enhancing the quality of its marine environment. In 1980, the government enacted two important decisions - Nos. 30-CP and 31-CP - related to monitoring the activity of foreign ships. Articles 16 and 17 mentioned the prevention of sea pollution from ships using nuclear power and transporting toxic chemicals. These decisions are considered Vietnam’s first marine policies related to environmental protection (NEA, 2004). 2.2. Stage 2: 1986 to 2008 The Doi Moi (renovation) policy began implementation in 1986, marking an important turning point in Vietnamese history: the country began a change toward a market-oriented economy. While the coasts and sea were recognized as important factors in national economic development, at this stage, government policies focused more on spurring economic growth rather than environmental protection, resource conservation, and sustainable development (CPV, 2001; MPI, 2004). Though major economic sectors such as fisheries; aquaculture; agriculture; marine transportation; port, oil, and gas exploration; and coastal tourism boomed without effective management, the need for effective policies around coastal and marine development became very urgent. Policies and strategies Vietnam started formulating and enforcing environmental protection policies and regulations at the beginning of the 1990s. The first environmental protection regulations relating to coastal areas were established in 1989—the Ordinance on Aquatic Resource Protection and the Ordinance of Resource Tax—and addressed tax collection from resource users, including Vietnamese and foreign fishers. The importance of coastal and national socioeconomic development was specifically emphasized in the Coastal and Marine Development Policy Directive of 1997, which acknowledged the need to build a strong coastal- and marine-related economy (Hoang, 2005). In 2003, the Vietnamese government enacted the Law of Fisheries, which replaced the former Ordinance of Aquatic Living Resources Protection (1989). The 1993 Law of Oil and Gas was also amended in 2000. These laws provide the legal framework for developing the two key marine economic sectors of the country (Hoang, 2005). 433
8. At the international level, Vietnam has signed a number of treaties that bind the state to protecting coastal resources and the environment. These include the RAMSAR Convention (Convention on Wetlands of International Importance), the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, the MARPOL Convention (International Convention for the Protection of Pollution by Oil from Ships), the Convention of Heritage, the Convention of Biodiversity Conservation, and the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal. However, in practice, most of these agreements remain unimplemented for various sociopolitical reasons (Sekhar, 2005). Institutional hierarchy The National Law on Environmental Protection establishes an institutional framework for environmental management from the central level down to the local level, and also identifies the role of local communities in the coastal resource and environmental management process, including coastal area management.The Sea and Islands Commission is a consultative organization belonging directly to the prime minister and headed by a vice-prime minister. Coastal management and marine management are segmented within a number of central ministries and sectors, where their functions and missions overlap. Hence, coastal and marine policy, enforcement, and collaboration are still weak and limited (VNICZM, 2006). ICM introduction to Vietnam Integrated coastal management (ICM) was introduced to Vietnam in 1995. ICM initiatives have been formulated at the central level and implemented at the local level as pilot projects supported by government and international organizations. Some of these projects are summarized below (Nguyen, 2002a; 2005). - National project to develop an ICM plan to maintain ecological safety and environmental protection (1996 to 2000): This was the first project on ICM in Vietnam and has been financially supported by the government. Vietnamese scientists have helped in the application of a conceptual ICM framework in the Vietnamese context, developed a national ICM action plan, and designed two case studies in the Ha Long Bay coastal area (northern) and Da Nang City (central). - Vietnam-Netherlands project on integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) (2000 to 2005) with financial support from the Netherlands government: This project was conducted in three coastal provinces including Nam Dinh (northern), Thua Thien-Hue (central), and Ba Ria-Vung Tau (southern). It focused on building ICM capacity and developing coastal strategies and action plans for three case studies, as well as establishing a division of ICM and watershed management under NEA. - Vietnam-United States of America project on building ICM capacity for Vietnam in the Tonkin Gulf, supported by the U.S. (NOAA) and the IUCN: This project was implemented in the Quang Ninh and Hai Phong coastal areas and emphasized training, habitat mapping, and ICM framework development. The success of this project is reflected in the commitment to ICM implementation by both provincial governments. 434
9. - Vietnam-World Fish Center project on facilitating ICM for Vietnam (2005 to 2006): This project focused on the development of a training manual on ICM at Vietnam’s coastal provincial level. - Vietnam-PEMSEA (Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia) project on marine pollution and integrated coastal management—regional pilot site in Da Nang City (2001 to 2008): This project designed the ICM plan for Da Nang and was approved by the city’s government. Although many ICM efforts have been conducted in Vietnam, coastal areas are still inadequately managed and protected (Nguyen, 2009a), and the current institutional arrangements for coastal resource management are incomplete and insufficient. There is still a lack of environment and mechanism for information sharing among stakeholders (Nguyen, 2009a; VNICZM, 2006; Sekhar, 2005). Until 2008, there was no agency solely responsible for marine and coastal management. 2.3. Stage 3: 2008- present In 2008, recognizing the importance of managing marine and coastal areas in an integrated manner, the Vietnamese government established the Vietnam Administration of Seas and Islands (VASI) to integrate and unify state management for seas, coasts, and islands in Vietnam. It oversees all marine and coastal concerns, especially those related to national sustainable development. At the central level, VASI is also a national coordinating agency for all ICM projects and all international cooperation marine activities. Besides institutional rearrangement, the Vietnamese government has also approved and enacted a number of policies and laws related specifically to ICM. Governmental Decree No.25/2009/ND-CP on Integrated Marine Resources Management and Environmental Protection - dated March 6, 2009, and enforced in May 2009 - was the first integrated governance policy for coasts, seas, and islands in Vietnam. The policy provides guidelines for ICM implementation, coastal function zoning, and marine spatial planning. Through the Vietnam Administration of Seas and Islands (VASI) of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MONRE), the Vietnamese government has taken the necessary steps to initiate a scaling up of ICM across the country. With valuable financial and technical support from PEMSEA (The Partnerships in the Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia), many international and interagency workshops have been convened, serving as a platform for engaging key agencies, experts, and stakeholders to plan for the development and implementation of activities in support of national priorities for sustainable coastal development. In addition, a national programme on integrated coastal management for Vietnam is being implemented with the first stage of intensive involvement of seven coastal provinces. These efforts show the commitment of the Vietnamese government in adopting and scaling up ICM and mark a new stage in VASI’s development as a focal organization in managing ocean and coastal areas in an integrated and sustainable way. 435
10. 3. Implementing effective integrated coastal management toward vietnam-european free trade agreement 3.1. Coastal economics related content in the Vietnam-European Free Trade Agreement In the context of international integration, coastal economics which mainly depends on aquaculture products has been affected to many free trade agreements (FTAs). Among FTAs, the EU-Vietnam free trade agreement (EVFTA) is one of the new generation free trade agreements that refer several articles relating to aquaculture products. The negotiation process of the EVFTA has been finished on 1/12/2015 and the documents were published on 1/2/2016. This agreement is expected to take effect from 2018. There are 21 chapters in the EVFTA, in which 4 chapter regarding to environmental problems such as Technical Barriers to Trade, Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, Non-tariff barriers to trade and investment in renewable energy generation and Trade and Sustainable Development. Specifically, chapter 15 focus on concerns about Trade and Sustainable Development in the EVFTA. Article 8 of chapter 15 relates to trade and sustainable management of living marine resources and aquaculture products. Box 1: Trade and sustainable management of living marine resources and aquaculture products 2. To this end, the Parties commit to: (i) Cooperate, as appropriate, with and within Regional Fisheries Management Organisations to which they are members, observers, or cooperating noncontracting parties, including through effective application of their Monitoring, Control and Surveillance and enforcement of management measures and, where applicable, implement their Catch Documentation or Certification Schemes. (ii) Cooperate in and actively engage in the fight against illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing and fishing related activities with comprehensive, effective and transparent measures to combat IUU. The Parties shall also facilitate the exchange of information on IUU activities and implement policies and measures to exclude IUU products from trade flows. (iii) Promote the development of sustainable aquaculture, taking into account its economic, social and environmental aspects. (iv) Exchange at the meetings of the Specialised committee on trade and sustainable development and, as appropriate, in other occasions, information on all new measures of management of living marine resources and fishery products that may impact on trade between the Parties. Source: The EVFTA, 2016 Catch documentation schemes (CDS) are market-related measures that have been developed specifically to combat IUU fishing. An official definition is as follows: 436
11. "A system that tracks and traces fish from the point of capture through unloading and throughout the supply chain. A CDS records and certifies information that identifies the origin of fish caught and ensures they were harvested in a manner consistent with relevant national, regional and international conservation and management measures. The objective of the CDS is to combat IUU fishing by limiting access of IUU fish and fishery products to markets” ( FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Report No. 1120, 2015) This positions a CDS as a market-based Monitoring, Control and Surveillance (MCS) tool, which can be applied by Regional Fisheries Management Organisations (RFMO), individual countries, or regional economic blocks, such as the EU. Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing is a global problem that threatens ocean ecosystems and sustainable fisheries. IUU products often come from fisheries lacking the strong and effective conservation and management measures to which Vietnam fishermen are subject. IUU fishing most often violates conservation and management measures, such as quotas or bycatch limits, established under international agreements. By adversely impacting fisheries, marine ecosystems, food security and coastal communities around the world, IUU fishing undermines domestic and international conservation and management efforts. Furthermore, IUU fishing risks the sustainability of a multi-billion-dollar U.S. industry. Vietnam and EU recognise the importance of ensuring the conservation and sustainable management of living marine resources and marine ecosystems as well as the promotion of responsible and sustainable aquaculture. Thus, Vietnam should consider ICM in the context of these trade articles. Implementing effective integrated coastal management toward Vietnam-European Free Trade Agreement. The establishment of VASI and the ongoing development of ICM policies open a promising future for ocean and coastal management in Vietnam. However, a number of considerations should be taken into account in order to make this arrangement and mechanism work effectively. First, the sustainable development of the sea and coastal areas should be linked with poverty reduction in local coastal communities and livelihood improvements for fishery laborers and others whose income depends on coastal and marine resources. This is believed to be crucial to the sustainability of any management mechanism (Nguyen, 2009a). In addition, the interrelationship between different regions and sectors should be emphasized. Sustainable development of the sea and coastal areas has to be placed into a framework of integrated coastal, marine, and watershed management, taking transboundary issues into account (Chua, 2006). Capacity building should be considered one of the most important factors in the successful implementation of ICM. Education and training activities associated with ICM must vary extremely to complement the existing capacity of any stakeholders and their role within ICM. While there is no such thing as effective “generic” ICM training, training 437
12. must be tailored to match the requirements of target groups and existing competencies (Pedersen et al., 2005; Hills et al., 2006). Public awareness plays a very important role in the ICM effort. General public in developing countries are typically less aware or concerned about the adverse environmental impacts of unregulated economic development. Politicians and economic managers continue to maintain the attitude of “development first and cleanup later.” Creating public awareness should be a continuous process in ICM implementation; it helps to generate support, raises environmental awareness, and promotes civil advocacy for environmental protection and sustainable development (Chua, 1993; Thakadu, 2005). Sustainable financing mechanisms are widely discussed as a major challenge for many ICM programs. The lack of financial resources available for ICM affects the sustainability of the process (Milne and Christie, 2005). According to Christie (2005), due to limited financial resources, externally funded projects have been the main proponents and implementers of ICM within developing countries. Dependence on external financial and technical assistance creates potentially unsustainable institutions and policies as projects are terminated and support staff and funding are withdrawn. In order to ensure the sustainability of the ICM effort, it is important to formulate financial schemes and to identify, secure, and distribute funds to facilitate ICM at the planning stage. Innovative financing schemes should be studied and applied as a priority for sustainable coastal management in the future. Community-based management has seen traditional success in the Vietnamese context since the pre-colonial period (Ruddle, 2005; Truong et al., 2010). Communities are usually the “first responders” as well as the “first affectee” for many ecological problems. ICM has the potential to bring together many issues that can be addressed by the multi- stakeholder process. Local communities should be very important stakeholders; according to Chua (2006), the effectiveness and sustainability of community-based management increase if implemented within the framework of ICM. In a way, this helps ensure the success of the ICM effort. Lastly, an integrated and systematic information system will also affect the success of the ICM effort. ICM is considered to promote the gathering of reliable scientific information (Chua, 2006). While there is a sizable amount of scientific and legal databases involved in ICM, there persists a lack of unified and systematic information management in Vietnam. This creates obstacles for policymakers, practitioners, scientists, and communities when discussing and solving the complex problems of coastal and marine management. Knowledge and database sharing would make the corporation integration process more effective. Conclusions Vietnam has recently experienced rapid growth in its coastal areas. In addition to economic development, there are also many problems relating to ecosystems and the environment. In an effort to balance economic growth and environmental protection, the 438
13. Vietnamese government has formulated many policies and conducted institutional rearrangements to meet the needs of current coastal management issues. Some significant efforts include the newly established Vietnam Authority of Seas and Islands and a move toward an integrated coastal management approach. However, to sustain the ICM approach, many factors should be considered carefully, such as the financing scheme, public awareness, capacity building, and an integrated information system. Although many challenges exist for Vietnam, scaling up ICM and making ICM a national policy are believed to contribute to Vietnam’s sustainable development. According to Chua (2006), the ICM approach has gained significant success all over the world. Contents such as trade and sustainable management of living marine resources and aquaculture products, Catch documentation schemes and Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing are referred clearly in Vietnam-European Free Trade Agreement. There is an urgent need for more ICM research to localize the approach and make it suitable to and compatible for the country, toward Vietnam-European Free Trade Agreement. REFERENCES ADB (Asian Development Bank) (2003) Central Region Vietnam: Assessment & Strengthening of Coastal Management Institutions. Christie, P. (2005) Is integrated coastal management sustainable?, Journal of Ocean and Coastal Management 48: 208-232. Chua, T.E. (1993) Essential elements of integrated coastal zone management, Journal of Ocean and Coastal Management 21: 81-108. CPV (Communist Party of Vietnam) (2001) Strategy for Socio-Economic Development for 2001-2010. European Union, 2016, Free trade agreement between the European Union and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (EVFTA) FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Report No. 1120, July 2015, Report of the Expert Consultation on Catch documentation Schemes, GOV (Government of Vietnam) (1982) Statement of 12 November 1982 by the Government of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on the Territorial Sea Baseline of Vietnam. Hills, J.M., Alcock, D., Higham, T., Kirkman, H., Tissier, M.L., Pagdilao, C., Samonte, P.C., Smith, T.F. (2006) Capacity building for integrated coastal management in Asia- Pacific: The case for case studies, Journal of Coastal Management 34: 323-337. MONRE (Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment) (2003) Vietnam Water Resources Monitoring Report. NEA (National Environment Administration) (2005) State of Vietnam biodiversity. Nguyen, C.H. (2009a) National policy of Vietnam for coastal and marine development. Proceedings of East Asian Seas Congress Manila, Philippines. 439
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